Re: PostgreSQL on S3-backed Block Storage with Near-Local Performance

Hi Seref,

For the benchmarks, I used Hetzner's cloud service with the following setup:

- A Hetzner s3 bucket in the FSN1 region
- A virtual machine of type ccx63 48 vCPU 192 GB memory
- 3 ZeroFS nbd devices (same s3 bucket)
- A ZFS stripped pool with the 3 devices
- 200GB zfs L2ARC
- Postgres configured accordingly memory-wise as well as with synchronous_commit = off, wal_init_zero = off and wal_recycle = off.

Best,
Pierre

On Fri, Jul 18, 2025, at 12:42, Seref Arikan wrote:
> Sorry, this was meant to go to the whole group:
>
> Very interesting!. Great work. Can you clarify how exactly you're running postgres in your tests? A specific AWS service? What's the test infrastructure that sits above the file system?
>
> On Thu, Jul 17, 2025 at 11:59 PM Pierre Barre <pierre(at)barre(dot)sh> wrote:
>> Hi everyone,
>>
>> I wanted to share a project I've been working on that enables PostgreSQL to run on S3 storage while maintaining performance comparable to local NVMe. The approach uses block-level access rather than trying to map filesystem operations to S3 objects.
>>
>> ZeroFS: https://github.com/Barre/ZeroFS
>>
>> # The Architecture
>>
>> ZeroFS provides NBD (Network Block Device) servers that expose S3 storage as raw block devices. PostgreSQL runs unmodified on ZFS pools built on these block devices:
>>
>> PostgreSQL -> ZFS -> NBD -> ZeroFS -> S3
>>
>> By providing block-level access and leveraging ZFS's caching capabilities (L2ARC), we can achieve microsecond latencies despite the underlying storage being in S3.
>>
>> ## Performance Results
>>
>> Here are pgbench results from PostgreSQL running on this setup:
>>
>> ### Read/Write Workload
>>
>> ```
>> postgres(at)ubuntu-16gb-fsn1-1:/root$ pgbench -c 50 -j 15 -t 100000 example
>> pgbench (16.9 (Ubuntu 16.9-0ubuntu0.24.04.1))
>> starting vacuum...end.
>> transaction type: <builtin: TPC-B (sort of)>
>> scaling factor: 50
>> query mode: simple
>> number of clients: 50
>> number of threads: 15
>> maximum number of tries: 1
>> number of transactions per client: 100000
>> number of transactions actually processed: 5000000/5000000
>> number of failed transactions: 0 (0.000%)
>> latency average = 0.943 ms
>> initial connection time = 48.043 ms
>> tps = 53041.006947 (without initial connection time)
>> ```
>>
>> ### Read-Only Workload
>>
>> ```
>> postgres(at)ubuntu-16gb-fsn1-1:/root$ pgbench -c 50 -j 15 -t 100000 -S example
>> pgbench (16.9 (Ubuntu 16.9-0ubuntu0.24.04.1))
>> starting vacuum...end.
>> transaction type: <builtin: select only>
>> scaling factor: 50
>> query mode: simple
>> number of clients: 50
>> number of threads: 15
>> maximum number of tries: 1
>> number of transactions per client: 100000
>> number of transactions actually processed: 5000000/5000000
>> number of failed transactions: 0 (0.000%)
>> latency average = 0.121 ms
>> initial connection time = 53.358 ms
>> tps = 413436.248089 (without initial connection time)
>> ```
>>
>> These numbers are with 50 concurrent clients and the actual data stored in S3. Hot data is served from ZFS L2ARC and ZeroFS's memory caches, while cold data comes from S3.
>>
>> ## How It Works
>>
>> 1. ZeroFS exposes NBD devices (e.g., /dev/nbd0) that PostgreSQL/ZFS can use like any other block device
>> 2. Multiple cache layers hide S3 latency:
>> a. ZFS ARC/L2ARC for frequently accessed blocks
>> b. ZeroFS memory cache for metadata and hot dataZeroFS exposes NBD devices (e.g., /dev/nbd0) that PostgreSQL/ZFS can use like any other block device
>> c. Optional local disk cache
>> 3. All data is encrypted (ChaCha20-Poly1305) before hitting S3
>> 4. Files are split into 128KB chunks for insertion into ZeroFS' LSM-tree
>>
>> ## Geo-Distributed PostgreSQL
>>
>> Since each region can run its own ZeroFS instance, you can create geographically distributed PostgreSQL setups.
>>
>> Example architectures:
>>
>> Architecture 1
>>
>>
>> PostgreSQL Client
>> |
>> | SQL queries
>> |
>> +--------------+
>> | PG Proxy |
>> | (HAProxy/ |
>> | PgBouncer) |
>> +--------------+
>> / \
>> / \
>> Synchronous Synchronous
>> Replication Replication
>> / \
>> / \
>> +---------------+ +---------------+
>> | PostgreSQL 1 | | PostgreSQL 2 |
>> | (Primary) |◄------►| (Standby) |
>> +---------------+ +---------------+
>> | |
>> | POSIX filesystem ops |
>> | |
>> +---------------+ +---------------+
>> | ZFS Pool 1 | | ZFS Pool 2 |
>> | (3-way mirror)| | (3-way mirror)|
>> +---------------+ +---------------+
>> / | \ / | \
>> / | \ / | \
>> NBD:10809 NBD:10810 NBD:10811 NBD:10812 NBD:10813 NBD:10814
>> | | | | | |
>> +--------++--------++--------++--------++--------++--------+
>> |ZeroFS 1||ZeroFS 2||ZeroFS 3||ZeroFS 4||ZeroFS 5||ZeroFS 6|
>> +--------++--------++--------++--------++--------++--------+
>> | | | | | |
>> | | | | | |
>> S3-Region1 S3-Region2 S3-Region3 S3-Region4 S3-Region5 S3-Region6
>> (us-east) (eu-west) (ap-south) (us-west) (eu-north) (ap-east)
>>
>> Architecture 2:
>>
>> PostgreSQL Primary (Region 1) ←→ PostgreSQL Standby (Region 2)
>> \ /
>> \ /
>> Same ZFS Pool (NBD)
>> |
>> 6 Global ZeroFS
>> |
>> S3 Regions
>>
>>
>> The main advantages I see are:
>> 1. Dramatic cost reduction for large datasets
>> 2. Simplified geo-distribution
>> 3. Infinite storage capacity
>> 4. Built-in encryption and compression
>>
>> Looking forward to your feedback and questions!
>>
>> Best,
>> Pierre
>>
>> P.S. The full project includes a custom NFS filesystem too.
>>